Arguement On The Provision Of Cable Television On College Campuses Ess

Arguement On The Provision Of Cable Television On College Campuses There is a Problem with Having Cable Television on College Campuses Eleven o'clock on a Tuesday night, walking through the brightly lit halls, many doors wide open in a dormitory complex on the campus of Bowling Green State University, one can see that the only light that emerges from the open doors is the constantly changing illumination coming from television consoles. Passing from door to door, sounds such as sports cheers, gun shots, screams of people being slain, and moans of woman in ecstasy can be heard. Although many students have the time to watch the television, many of them don't. The televisions utter no words of mathematics or Biology. Because of this horrid ?accommodation? provided by the college, the quality of students intellectually, morally, and physically has made a sudden turn for the worst. Some ignorant persons argue that cable television provides quality educational programs to students and helps them to cut lose after a hard day of studying, but the true harsh reality is that cable television, due to the vast amount of extreme ly worthless channels such as HBO, Cinnemax, and, of course, MTV, do nothing but discourage interpersonal relationships and association, provide a distraction, inspire sloth, and install thoughts of sex and violence into the easily malleable minds of students, especially younger freshman and sophomores living on campus. Some people have views that cable television is beneficial to students. In this fictional scenario, one can see the arrival of the idea of cable television onto the campus of Bowling Green State University. The administrators while sitting around their monstrous finely polished eastern oak table in their soft reclinable chairs, smoking their illegally imported cigars, thought of what seemed to be en ingenious idea. They thought of a way to supposedly improve the learning environment of students. One idea can be speculated that stood out in their minds. An idea that could give their students an incredible edge over other students from some other schools, the idea could be none other than the introduction of cable television into every room on the campus of their fine university. To them, this would give students access to explore a vast amount of educational and informational channels such as Discovery, Life, CNN, Animal Planet, and Health. Disney would also be provided for the mental ly challenged, playful at heart, student wanting to have fun learning multiplication tables from Mickey Mouse or Goofy. They thought that this idea would also help students to unwind after a long day of studying or be quite after a hard night of partying. This idea of providing cable television may have been done with good intention, but, in reality, there could not have been a worse idea. They could have just as easily and more cost efficiently painted a square picture on the wall that read, ?Look at This for Four Hours if You're a Jackass.? (A couple blunts and students would look all day and night just as long as the paint showed up in a black light.) There are many reasons why cable television is a terrible idea. The provision of cable television discourages mostly new students from conversing with each other and forming relationships. Definitely not all, but many students, mostly younger ones (freshman and sophomore), are still adapting to college life. It can be hard for them to make the transition from being at home to living on a large campus such as Bowling Green State University. Some of the new students are often quite shy and find it hard to talk with some of their peers. They look to cable television as a way to avoid awkward situations that they are afraid that they might encounter. Another reason why providing cable television on a college campus is a bad idea is that it provides a horrible distraction to college students. Instead of doing homework, they spend their time destroying their intellect looking at a square box not even remembering what happened two minutes beforehand. A BGSU student, Keith Piper, also known as ?Viper,? with notes in hand, staring at the television falling into a ?television trance,? managed to groggily slur this peculiar comment before trailing off into television

Consequences of the First World War Essay Example

Consequences of the First World War Essay Example Consequences of the First World War Essay Consequences of the First World War Essay Consequences of the First World War A war unlike any to those that had preceded it, the First World War was fought on such a global scale that the sphere of influence of its consequences encompassed virtually the entire world. As a result of the war there were many political, cultural, and social changes across the world. New countries were born while old ones were abolished, new international organizations were established, and many new ideologies came to the fore. The signing of the Treaty of Versailles was perhaps the most important outcome of the First World War. Based on American President Woodrow Wilson’s ‘fourteen points’ the treaty was signed on June 28, 1919 after six months of negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference. By the terms of the treaty, Germany was forced to pay war reparations of 6. 6 billion dollars to the Allies to compensate for the losses that they had suffered during the war. The treaty also imposed a number of military restrictions on Germany by which their army was limited to a force of 1,00,00 soldiers, their navy restricted to 15,000 men and 24 ships while their air force and submarines were banned. However the terms of the treaty that hurt Germany the most were those by which Germany was forced to cede some of its territories. Germany lost Alsace Lorrain to France, Eupen – et – Malmedy to Belgium and Schleswig to Denmark, while Danzig became a free port in Polish territory. Germany also lost all of her colonies in China and the Pacific, the control of which was given to Japan. To further compound Germany’s misery they were forced to cede the coalmines of Saar to France as well as demilitarize the area of the Rhineland which was to be occupied by the Allied troops, both for fifteen year periods. Another major peace treaty that was signed after the First World War was the Treaty of Sevres. The treaty was signed between Turkey and the Allies. The treaty solidified the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire by which the empire’s territories were divided into new states. The treaty also gave the Allies more or less complete control over the empire’s finances as they approved the national budget and supervised financial laws and regulations. Future developments of the tax system, the customs system, internal or external loans, or on concessions could not be arranged without the consent of the financial commission of the Allied powers. In terms of military restrictions, the Ottoman army was to be restricted to 50,700 men; the Ottoman navy could only preserve seven sloops and six torpedo boats; and the Ottoman state was prohibited from obtaining an air force. A war of such magnitude was always going to have an impact on the map of the world and as expected a number of dynasties were brought crumbling down with new independent states rising from their rubble. The war saw the end of the three ruling dynasties of the world – the Romanov in Russia, the Hohenzollern in Germany and the Hapsburg in Austria – Hungary. The partitioning of Austria – Hungary, a major belligerent, into Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia was done largely but not completely along ethnic lines. Also new independent nations such as Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland were carved from the Russian western frontier. Following the war, the Ottoman Empire was also partitioned according to the Treaty of Sevres. The war also led to a number of technological advancements as new weapons were discovered and soldiers developed new warring tactics. A major outcome of the war in terms of military tactics was that of trench warfare by which soldiers dug trenches from where they could easily defend themselves and launch attacks. Also new weapons such as machine guns and liquid fire were introduced and aircrafts were used for bombing civilian population for the first time. The British introduced the tank, which became extremely popular and is used even today, while Germany used submarines called U – boats on a large scale. The war also fueled Communism as an ideology and allowed it to flourish. Russia had suffered major setbacks during the war and the Russian monarchy had become extremely unpopular. Discontent led to a rise in popularity of the Bolshevik party, led by Vladimir Lenin who promised to pull Russia out of the war and was able to gain power. The Bolsheviks triumph in November was followed by an armistice and negotiations with Germany by which Russia could exit the war. It was also decided that an international peace keeping body was required to prevent the recurrence of a war of such magnitude and thus the League of Nations was created to preserve world peace and to guarantee the independence of all states. The League of Nations called for member nations not to maintain huge armies, warships and destructive armaments, and also laid down certain rules by which it prohibited any two countries from entering into secret treaties or alliances. However when the United States of America, who had played such a key role in setting up the League of Nations decided not to join it, the League suffered a major set back as all the other member nations were not whole heartedly committed to maintaining world peace. This was made evident when Japan left the League in order to occupy Manchuria. Last but not least, it must be noticed that the terms of the Treaty of Versailles indirectly sowed the seeds for the Second World War. The terms of the treaty were greatly resented by the Germans who felt that they had been done a great injustice and therefore looked for an opportunity to avenge the same. Hitler exploited these sentiments and openly encouraged the Germans to consign the Treaty of Versailles to the waste paper basket. This in turn increased his popularity amongst the general population and led to his rise in power. With Hitler at the helm, his aggressive foreign policies and ambitions of territorial expansions, made World War II an absolute certainty. Word Count 1005

Comparison between Prisons and Jails Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Comparison between Prisons and Jails - Essay Example That having been said, the question that one may ask is what are these differences? The purpose of this paper is to compare jails and prisons in the US. Hall (2010) notes that the comparison of jails and prisons should begin at the point of definition. As such, Hall defines a jail as a place for confinement of persons in lawful detention. Prisons, on the other hand, refer to a place where individuals already convicted of the offense are confined. From the definitions, it is apparent that jails are mainly meant to hold offenders pending their transportation to prison units, whereas prisons mainly house already convicted offenders who are serving their terms. The other difference noted is that jails operate mainly under the local jurisdictions while prisons are administered by the state. It is also notable that jails, unlike prisons are designed for short term periods only. Due to this reason, jails tend to have less social amenities than prisons. Offenders being housed in a jail have access to less amenities such as food, water, and bathrooms, and in a low security jail, these individuals may be allowed to socialize freely in common areas at sometimes during the day. However, this is highly restricted in prisons depending on the type of prison in which one is held. For instance, in maximum security cells, convicts have no such freedom to socialize freely in a common area since they are considered a threat to others (Beck and Harison, 2005). Findings also show that most jails are designed to house very few numbers of criminals and have relatively lax security in comparison to prisons where security is very tight. However, areas that are prone to violence are always administered under very strict security lines (Hall, 2010). Two types of jails found in the US are podular/direct supervision jails and the regional jails. Podular/direct supervision jails (New Generation Jails) are a type of jail used mainly to house inmates in pods or units centered on a multipurpose space. This type of jail operates on the principle that, consistent, direct supervision of prisoners can curb negative behaviors. The regional jails, on the other hand, are facilities operated together by two or more jurisdictions, and which is composed of prisoners drawn from those jurisdictions as noted by Christensen (2006). It is, however, noted that regional jails may sometimes be the only imprisonment facility in a given jurisdiction while, in others, jurisdiction may have its own jail as well as be at liberty to send some inmates to a regional facility. These jails form an integral part of the legal justice system in the US. Report reveals that there are approximately 3,300 jails in the US, which houses more than two million inmates in the country. These jails play an important role in holding offenders as they wait to be transported and brought before courts for trials. It also ensures that those who are denied bails while still undergoing trial are housed within reach of t he administrators of justice. Above all, jails act as correctional facility, which is indispensable for the criminal justice system. Prisons, on the other hand, are administered by the state and have much more extensive amenities since some prisoners may be put under a life sentence behind bars. Prisons also have access areas, church facilities and common areas for socializing and eating as well as educational facilities including classrooms, libraries and laboratories, where inmates can work and study

Crime Mapping Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Crime Mapping - Research Proposal Example Examination of the disturbance data table confirms occurrence within broken windows the same as the system of entry, signifying that possibly residences are being beleaguered. This implies geographic patterns ought to follow regions of higher family density, moreover temporal patterns are supposed to follow day by day as well as weekly practices. This will be analyzed inside this analysis. Thematic Choropleth The disturbance data is plotted by means of a thematic choropleth so as to overcome the drawbacks of simple point plots. Derived from the prevalent system of entry which is broken windows, we suppose disturbance crime is powerfully associated with building density for this reason we choose to control the crime data through dividing by number of households instead of dividing by tract area. During this matter we have regulated the ranges to emphasize a smaller number of precedence tracts which are able to then turn out to be the focus of our successive analysis. Our plan is to discover opportunities for a besieged policing effort which lessen crime considerably. So, we regulated the ranges so that fewer than 6 tracts stay in the top grouping. The resulting plot is illustrated in Figure 3. Related Geographic Data and Spatial Relationships When the streets layer plus the disturbance crimes are added to the choropleth plot, it in the end indicates the spatial association between crime events plus the urban landscape. Figure 4 illustrates apparent concentrations in the region of definite streets and intersections plus the very remarkable observation that the Inner Loop Road appears to bound high concentration of crime. Grid Map On the other hand, bearing in mind the drawbacks of simple plot charts to demonstrate crime concentrations we will include a grid... The day-of-week chronological analysis confirms predominance in crime for the duration of the week as measured up to during the weekend, significance that targets possibly residential relatively than commercial. This deduction is held up by the hour-of-day examination even though conceivably the trends are not predominantly strong. Perchance not astonishingly a peak is observed on Friday, but fascinatingly another peak comes about on Tuesday. The results shows disturbances tend to raise after 7am that is when individuals have left for work, next they portray an abrupt drop at lunch time, then a sturdy peak mid- daylight that is the time when school comes to an end, and one more strong peak at 8pm that is the time when individuals go out, in addition to a principally strong peak past midnight. This last midnight peak may possibly be the consequence of reporting curbs. The data is anchored in timeframe furthermore it might be that during midnight is the moment that is selected when def inite time is unknown.

The Cause of Drug Abuse Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

The Cause of Drug Abuse - Essay Example Additionally, it is possible to treat drug addiction and enable people to go back to their normal lives. Drug addiction can be considered as a chronic disease that causes obsessive behavior in spite of the negative consequences to the individual and those around them. It leads to changes in the structure and functioning of the brain (Allen 67). Many individuals indulge in drug abuse voluntarily at first, and lose self control overtime, thus negatively influencing their lifestyle. Some root causes of drug abuse include curiosity, exposure to drug addiction from media and friends, genetic predisposition to addiction, lack of self-esteem and depression. According to a famous saying, â€Å"curiosity killed the cat.† This is true in the case of drug abuse (Lowinson 48). People addicted to drugs are curious about its effect on them. They think that drugs can be so much fun. With it, they can be someone else because they can do things they cannot do when they are not under the influence of drugs. The media serves as one of the most influential factors to the way people behave nowadays. According to Castillo (48), the media portrays drug abuse as similar to being cool. For instance, pop artists who have the most number of fans are those who look or were reported to be drug users (e.g., Britney Spears, Miley Cyrus, Rihanna, etc. Conversely, there are a few people who can serve as role models in the contemporary society. Peer pressure is also among the leading causes of drug abuse in the contemporary society (Lowinson 48). This is especially true for young people who use drugs to feel cool, fit in a certain group and impress their friends. For example, if one’s friends smoke marijuana or engage in alcoholism, there is a big chance that the person will take part in similar behavior just to be accepted. Peer pressure is the urge to do what one’s friends are doing is very common among teenagers who are desperate to impress their friends and be accepted in a

Taylors and Fayols Principles of Management

Taylors and Fayols Principles of Management Question A In 1909, Taylor introduced The Principles of Scientific Management. In this theory, he proposed that by optimizing and simplifying jobs, productivity would increase. Taylor also believe that all workers were motivated by wages, so he published the idea of fair payment with a fair work. In other words, if a worker didnt complete their task, he didnt deserve to be paid as much as another worker who was highly productive. Taylor is a mechanical engineer, he tried to improve industrial efficiency. Taylor is considered as the father of scientific management, he was the first well-known management consultant and director of the company. This theory is just a slight way, because it applies only to the factory. Majority of this theory is on between workers and machines. Taylors scientific management consisted of four principles: First â€Å"They developed a science for each element of a persons work, the rule of thumb is to replace the old way.† This principle tell us that the manager needs to simple habit and general knowledge, and instead use the scientific approach to study work and determine the most efficient way to complete specific tasks. Second  Ã¢â‚¬  They scientifically select and then train, teach, and develop workers, while in the past, he chose his own work and training the best he can.† We can understand this theory as not simply random work is assigned to employees, based on matching workers skills and enthusiasm for work, and develop their work at maximum efficiency. Thirdly they heartily cooperate with the men so as to ensure all of the work being done in accordance with the principles of the science which has been developed. This principle shows that the manager needs to supervise staff performance, and provide direction and oversight to ensure that the most effective way to use on their work. Fourth. â€Å"There is a work of almost equal division of responsibilities between management and workers. Management to take over all the work, they are better fit than the workers, and in the past, almost all of the work and responsibility, most men were thrown out by the.† Assignments between management and workers, the manger spend time planning and training, make sure that employees re able to perform their complete their duties with their maximum effectively. Initially, the cause of science and technology project management is used. This is due to the fact that, Taylor, its inventor, is concerned that these industries. But then operate the technology attracted the attention of other businesses as well. Principles of scientific management can be applied to all types of organizations, including both men and materials to carry out effective management. Scientific management techniques can be used by all economic and social organizations can effectively use. We can conclude that the scope of scientific management is very wide and that is why Taylor himself emphasised that â€Å"the same principle can be applied with equal force to all social activities to the management of our homes; the management of the business of our tradesmen, large and small, of our churches, of our philanthropic institutions, our Universities and our Governmental departments.† Under the Taylor’s theory, it has both advantage and disadvantage. The advantages of this theory is that the conditions of management are clearly defined, cause of the managers job become more easier. Secondly this theory will improve the efficiency of the employees. On the other hand, Taylor’s theory also have disadvantage which are this theory is comparing the performance with each other, it will lead to discontented. Secondly this theory without considering the needs and requirements of the employees, to treat them as machines. Question B Henri Fayol was born in Istanbul in 1841 when he was 19 years old, he started as an engineer at a major mining company in France. He eventually became a director, but this time the mining company employs over 1000 people in the time. Over the years, he began to develop Fayol considered the 14 most important principle management. Essentially, it explains how managers should organize and interact with staff. Fayol was developed 14 principles of management in order to help managers manage their affairs more effectively. Today, these principles are still use but are often interpreted differently. These fourteen principles include: Division of work- when employees are more professional, output can be increased caused by their increasingly skilled and high efficiency. Delegation of Authority- Managers must have the right to give orders, but they also must keep in mind, and authority from responsibility. Discipline- Discipline must adhere to the organization, but the situation may different. Chain of commands- Employees should have one and only one direct supervisor but one manager may have many employers. Congenial workplace- Team has the same target should work under the guidance of a manager by planning. This will ensure proper coordination of movement. Interrelation between individual interests and common organizational goals- A benefit of employees should not be allowed to become more important than the group, includes the management staff. Compensation package- Employee satisfaction depends on everyone equitable remuneration. This includes financial and non-financial compensation. Centralization- This principle refers to the closeness of the staff of the decision making process. Its goal is to provide an appropriate balance is very important. Scalar chains- employees should know that their standing levels of the organization, or the command Order- Workplace and facilities must be keep cleaning, tidy and safe employees. Everything should have its own position. Equity- Managers should be fair to staff at all times, both maintaining discipline as necessary and acting with kindness where appropriate. Job Guarantee- managers should strive to reduce staff turnover. Talent planning should be a priority. Initiatives- Employees should be given the necessary level of freedom, establishment and implementation plans. Team-Spirit- Organizations should strive to promote team spirit and solidarity. In additional, Fayol also has six primary functions of management, which go hand in hand with the Principles, which are Forecasting. Planning, Organizing, Commanding, Coordinating, And Controlling. Fayor is the father of management principles, because he set up the principle of modern management. It has a macro point of view, focusing on management, applicable to the basic principles of management in various fields. The Fayol’s philosophy has advantages. First, in addition to workers division of work, work should be divided, so that workers specializing in a particular job, but also improve the work efficiency. Secondly, there should be a balance of power and responsibilities between management and workers. In addition, he stressed that all staff fairness, kindness and justice organizations. By the action, it promotes a friendly atmosphere between superiors and subordinates. Material is disposed of ideas that he came all should be properly placed, and where everything should be. Loyalty and dedication to the members of solidarity organizations. If employees are loyal, dedicated their time to improve the organizations management also will be looking for afters so their employees welfare and well-being. However, there are some shortcomings in Fayol theory. The drawback is that he is divided into six categories are divided into five business activities and management functions and implement these features into fourteen principles. Another is that when it comes to equity, where workers receive fair and kind to work has become a regular. It also did not pay enough attention to workers. Managers ordered material without consulting staff responsible for this work. Without proper consultation is doing. Some theorists call this inconsistency, very open policy, lack of organization to use. Question C Both of two person have contributed to the development of management science. In these two pioneers in the field of management science contributions were reviewed for Taylor and Fayol manage theory job, of course, especially complementary. They have achieved a key staff and management at all levels of the problem is personal success, whether it is the application of scientific methods to this problem, Taylors work is mainly from the operational level, from the bottom up, while Fayol focused on the general manager and work down, but they are very different careers, a kind of expression. They are different from each other in the following aspects: Taylor looked at the management, from a regulatory point of view and trying to improve the management level of efficiency. He developed the theory of moving upwards. On the other hand, Fayol senior management level down analysis and management. Therefore, Fayol can afford a wider field of vision than Taylor. Taylor said his concept of scient ific management, while Fayol describes his method is the general theory of management. Taylors main purpose to improve labor productivity and eliminate all types of waste through standardization work and tools. Fayol trying to develop a general theory of management, and stressed the need for teaching management theory. Taylor to focus on the fact that the attention of management and his principles are applicable to the workshop. But Fayol general principles of centralized management and administration wheel can also apply at all. Similar both emphasize mutual cooperation between employment and employees. Areas of human activity Fayol theory compare to Taylor’s theory more widely used, but Taylors concept has undergone great changes in the impact of modern development, but the principles of management Fayol withstood the test of time and still be accepted as management theory core. According to psychologists, Taylors research has the following disadvantages: Ignore the human factor think they are machines. Ignoring the demands of humanity, hopes and aspirations. Separation of planning and doing. Dissatisfaction compare performance with others. Not the best way to solve the problem of scientific management is not an optimal way. REFERENCES http://www.ukessays.com/essays/commerce/important-elements-of-taylors-philosophy-commerce-essay.php http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/scientific-management/scientific-management-nature-and-scope-of-scientific-management-explained/25839/ http://www.studymode.com/subjects/contribution-of-henri-fayol-to-management-theory-and-philosophy-page1.html http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/henri-fayol.htm

What Makes the Dream American?

| What Makes the Dream American? | A Critical Thought Analysis| | Fairen Harris| University of Louisville| Dr. Chapman Gran Torino: In a nutshell A racist Korean War veteran and recent widower, Walt Kowalski is living in a crime ridden town in Detroit, Michigan. Walt’s once all White neighborhood has become occupied by the Hmong people. The Hmong people represent a part of Southeast Asia, such as Thailand, Laos, and China. The Hmong came to America because during the war they fought on the American side and the Vietnamese waged a war against the Hmong people after the Americans left.Due to this change in neighbors, Walt is now forced to confront his own lingering prejudice when a troubled Hmong teen, Thao Vang Lor, from next door attempts to steal his prized 1972 Gran Torino, (Ford model car) Walt himself helped assemble on the care line. It is decades after the Korean War has ended, and aging veteran Walt Kowalski is still haunted by the horrors he witnessed on the battlefiel d. The viewers notice the power distance created among the gang affiliated persons and the nonaffiliated when the gang has tried to kidnap Thao, Walt’s neighbor, from his home.Walt, in an attempt to get the â€Å"gooks† off his lawn turns his same rifle; he pointed at Thao when he attempted to steal Walt’s Gran Torino, on the gang members and scares them away. The Hmong show their gratitude to Walt, by making Thao pay penance for attempting to steal the Gran Torino. Despite the fact that Kowalski wants nothing to do with the young troublemaker, he realizes that the quickest way out of the situation is to simply cooperate. In an effort to set the teen on the right path in life and â€Å"toughen him up,† Walt turns from being Thao’s grumpy racist neighbor into being a helpful almost father figure.In the process of all of this, Kowalski discovers that the only way to lay his many painful memories to rest is to finally face his own blinding ethnocentri c views about other cultures directly. Thao Vang Lor: A boy or a man? When examining at the undertones of classism, racism, and sexism, one takes note that the character affected most is Thao. The first introduction viewers have of. Thao and the other Hmong people as a collective are celebrating the life of a new baby.The Lor family shaman is presiding over the ceremony giving viewers a glimpse into their traditional cultural values. Thao, living in a home with his grandmother, widowed mother, and sister, is looked down upon by the other Hmong people. They expect Thao to step up and become â€Å"the man of the home,† because of the recent death of his father. An elder woman in the movie even says, â€Å"Look at the way he does dishes he will never become the man of the home. † (cite movie here) When Thao fails to do so, he is ridiculed by elders and outcast by his peers.During the beginning of the movie Thao’s activity consist of what the Hmong, and many people of cultures around the world would refer to as ‘woman’s work. † Sue Lor, Thao sister, explains to Walt how life is for Hmong boys and girls. Sue Lor tells Walt, â€Å"Hmong girls fit in better. Girls go to college and the boys go to jail. † As the films plays out you see that Thao does not in fact fit this schema that the Hmong youth have seem to fall victim to. Despite Thao’s fight not to assimilate into the life of the typical Hmong boy, he finds it difficult to escape his cousin and gang friends.Thao is an average middle class teen, does the work of the household for his family, and is employed at a construction site; but most of all Thao wants to go to college and is willing to work hard to finance his way through school. However, he is still not seenperceived as being good enough as a man in the Asian culture and, even more so, in the American patriarchal society. So who is the better man, working Thao or his gang banging, potential rapist, cous in Spider? Throughout the entirety of the movie, Thao is faced with the notions that he is simply not enough of a man and he receives distinct criticism from his immediate family.Thao’s father, before his death, was always hard on them because, â€Å"he was traditional,† as Sue Lor put it. (cite here) How do we measure manhood? Is it based off the number of people that a man has killed? Is it the number of times he has went to war? Or in fact is the measurement of a man the same as what a human should be willing to do? To help ones family, set goals, and work hard to achieve them, that in fact is the measurement of a man, and that is who Thao Lor embodies. Diversity of the American dreamThe seemingly over arching theme in this movie is based on a culture clash, of non- Western and Western views and the ideas of the American Dream. This leads the audience to question, What does being an American mean? What is the American dream? The idea of the American dream is the not ion that anyone in the United States can succeed through hard work and has the potential to lead a happy, successful life. The issue with this idea is that the American dream often disregards  bias  based on a person's race, religion, gender and national origin, which might inhibit his or her ability to achieve the specific goals.Thao, not only struggling with sexism and racism, is also faced with the ever present struggle of class. Their whole neighborhood is similar to that of a very middle class neighborhood; however it is one that is not a priority of the city. Then is evident when there is a scene in which Walt has Thao clean was a rundown house across the street from Walt’s home, and when the police refuse to stay in the neighborhood long enough to patrol it properly. Thao’s only desire is attempting to lead a normalized life, wanting badly to make money, and wanting to take a Hmong girl that he has been interested in on a date.In his quest to do so he is fac ed with issues of peer pressure and teen anxiety. In search for his version of the American Dream, and in the end of the film he has finally achieved that, as Thao is seen driving the Gran Torino he once tried to steal. Conclusion: A message from the director In the end, Walt Kowalski gives up his life for Thao and the other Hmong people by sacrificing himself to be shot by the gang bangers in order to have hard evidence against them for them to be incarcerated for good.Walt was able to, not completely stop his racist mind set, become a bit more open to the Lor family, he felt he had the responsibility to protect them. After being killed, the film cuts to a scene of Thao and Sue in traditional Hmong clothing in route to Walt’s funeral, the same kind of scene as the beginning of the film. By directing and starring as the main character in the film, Clint Eastwood is making it a point for the viewers of this film to look closely at the issues occurring during this film, all of which having to do ith classism, racism, religion, sexism, and how each of these transpire across race and ethnic groups. Eastwood chooses to address Polish, Asians, Latinos, Blacks, Italians, men, women, young and old, wealthy, middle class, and the poor, attempting to address every traditional and non-traditional, western and non-western dichotomies. The film inevitably leaves the viewer thinking, did he do a good job in trying to get his message across? Was Eastwood attempts to use the film as antidote to the issues that it addresses fulfilled? r was there even a political perspective in which he wanted the viewers to interpret the film? References Eastwood, C. (Director, Prouducer). ( 2008). Gran Torino. [Motion picture]. United States: Warner Home Video Shiraev, E. , ; Levy, D. (2013). Cross-Cultural Psychology: Critical Thinking and Contemporary Applications (5th ed. ). Boston: Pearson (Allyn ; Bacon). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed. ). (2 009). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Chef Satisfaction

African Journal of Business Management Vol. 4(18), pp. 4118-4134, 18 December, 2010 Available online at http://www. academicjournals. org/AJBM ISSN 1993-8233  ©2010 Academic Journals Full Length Research Paper Drivers of hospitality industry employees’ job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance Ming-Chun Tsai1, Ching-Chan Cheng2* and Ya-Yuan Chang3 Department of Business Administration, Chung Hua University, No. 707, Sec. 2, WuFu Road, Hsinchu City, Taiwan 300, Republic of China. 2 Department of Food and Beverage Management, Taipei College of Maritime Technology, No. 212, Sec. , Yen Ping N, Taipei City, Taiwan 111, Republic of China. 3 Department of Business Administration, National Chung Hsing University, No. 250, Kuo Kuang Road. , Taichung City, Taiwan 402, Republic of China. Accepted 18 November, 2010 1 This study aims to combine empowerment, internal marketing, leadership and job stress to propose an integrated model of hospitality industry employees ’ job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance. The subjects of this study were hospitality industry employees from Taipei City, and the structural equation modeling was adopted to validate path relationships in integrated model.The findings showed that employees’ job satisfaction directly and positively influences organizational commitment, but does not directly influence job performance. Employees’ job satisfaction enhances job performance only through organizational commitment. Internal marketing, empowerment and leadership also positively influence job satisfaction. Empowerment and leadership enhance employees’ organizational commitment. Internal job stress negatively influences employees’ job satisfaction and external job stress enhances employees’ job performance.According to the findings, this paper realized the main factors which influence hospitality industry employees’ job satisfaction, organizational comm itment and job performance, which can function as criteria for human resource management in the hospitality industry. Key words: Hospitality industry, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, job performance. INTRODUCTION With the change of the industrial structure in recent years, the output value of the service industry has become more than 70% of the GDP in most advanced countries (CIA, 2009). Thus, the service industry plays a significant role in national economic development.In 2008, as the world encountered a financial tsunami, the governments of different countries selected potential service industries and supported them with resources, in order to energize economic development. The hospitality industry is a typical service industry, and it is critical service industry around the world. In Taiwan, the scale of the hospitality industry has been increasing year by year. According to the Statistics Department, Ministry of Economic Affairs, in 2001 the business volume of the hospitality industry in Taiwan was NTD 261. 3 billion.In 2006 it passed NTD 300 billion and in 2009 it reached NTD 321. 7 billion. However, the hospitality industry refers to labor services and relies on manpower in areas such as production, delivery and restaurant service. Thus, the hospitality industry is mainly based on services. As mentioned in Bitner’s (1995) framework of the service marketing triangle, service providers play a critical role in the service industries. In service industry management, regarding the importance of employees, Heskett et al. (1994) proposed the framework of service profit chain.In the service profit chain, there are critical linkages among internal service *Corresponding author. E-mail: [email  protected] tcmt. edu. tw. Tel: +886-2-28102292 ext. 5009. Fax: +886-2-2810-6688. Tsai et al. 4119 quality, employee satisfaction/productivity, the value of services provided to the customer, customer satisfaction and company’s profits. This cha in shows that internal service quality can enhance employee satisfaction, which will enhance employee productivity and further result in external service value and enhanced customer satisfaction. Finally, the company can make a profit (Zeithaml et al. , 2009).Therefore, satisfied employees make satisfied customers. Service personnel satisfaction significantly influences organizational commitment and job performance on customer satisfaction and corporate operational performance (Ladkin, 2002; Dunlap et al. , 1988; Tansuhaj et al. , 1988; Chowdhary, 2003; Yang and Chen, 2010). How to enhance service personnel satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance is a critical issue in service industry management. In past research on employee satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance, many scholars (Babin and Boles, 1998; Bernhardt et al. 2000; Van Scotter, 2000; Koys, 2003; Testa, 2001) have validated that employees’ job satisfaction positively influence s job performance and organizational commitment. In studies on factors of employees’ job satisfaction, job performance and organizational commitment, the service profit chain proposed by Heskett et al. (1994) and service marketing management model indicated by Tansuhaj et al. (1988) on overall service industry both demonstrated that management's internal marketing activities produce job satisfaction and commitment to the organization.In addition, many studies have found close relationships between leadership, employee satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance (Billingsley and Cross, 1992; Yammarino and Dubinsky, 1994; Burton et al. , 2002; Avolio et al. , 2004; Chen and Silverthorne, 2005). The above studies have mainly focused on the educational service industry, retail industry, manufacturing service industry, medical service industry and governmental institutions, but have not conducted indepth explorations on the hospitality service industry.Hopfl (1994) indicated that in the service delivery, firstline employees must be empowered to some degree in order to cope with customers’ special demands. Thus, job empowerment can be treated as important management to encourage first-line service personnel and immediately solve customers’ differential demands. Avolio et al. (2004), Caykoylu et al. (2007) and Chen et al. (2008) respectively conducted empirical studies on medical personnel and employees of the telecommunication industry, banking industry and postal industry, and found that empowerment positively influences employee satisfaction and organizational commitment.One issue worthy of further study is the extent of how empowerment positively influences hospitality industry employee satisfaction and organizational commitment. In addition, first-line employees face different customer demands and supervisor requirements, therefore job stress is a critical issue for them. Jamal (1990) and Jex (1998) suggested that reducing em ployees’ job stress could enhance employees’ job satisfaction and job performance. Williams and Cooper (2002) and Ouyang (2009) indicated that proper job stress would enhance employees’ job performance.In the hospitality industry, the influence of job stress from external customers and internal supervisors on employees’ job satisfaction and job performance is an issue worthy of further exploration. Based on the above, internal marketing, leadership, empowerment and job stress are possible factors of service industry employees’ job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance, and these factors are validated in various service industries.However, the outcomes in different service industries are not the same. For the hospitality industry, it is important to validate and analyze the influences of the above factors on employees’ job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance. Thus, this study intended to combine i nternal marketing, leadership, empowerment and job stress and proposed an integrated model of hospitality industry employees’ job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance.Hospitality industry employees in Taipei City were treated as the subjects, and the researcher probed into factors of hospitality industry employees’ job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance in order to function as criteria for management in the hospitality industry. LITERATURE REVIEW Job satisfaction The term â€Å"job satisfaction† was proposed by Hoppock (1935) who suggested that job satisfaction means employees’ emotions and attitude toward their jobs, and is their subjective reaction toward their jobs.The definition of job satisfaction is generalized into three categories: (1) Definition of generality: Job satisfaction refers to the affective reaction to one’s job as the most (Ozer and Gunluk, 2010). Job satisfaction, which is one of the most important necessities for an individual to be successful, happy and productive, is a feeling of satisfaction, that is, an outcome of the perception of what the job provides for an individual (Ay and Av aro lu, 2010); (2) Definition of difference: This refers to the degree of satisfaction and the difference between ndividual actual returns and required returns. For instance, Porter and Lawler (1968) suggested that the degree of satisfaction depends on the difference between a person’s actual returns and expected returns; (3) Definition of criterion framework: Peoples' subjective perception and interpretation on objective traits of organizations or jobs would be influenced by individual criterion framework. According to Smith et al. (1969), job satisfaction is the outcome after a person interprets the job traits according 4120 Afr. J. Bus. Manage. o the criterion framework. The influence of certain work situations on job satisfaction is related to many factors, such as comparisons between good and bad jobs, comparisons with others, personal competency and past experience, etc. Job performance Kane and Lawler (1976) suggested that job performance refers to the record of the results when employees have practiced a job for a certain period of time. According to Schermerhorn (1989), job performance refers to the quality and quantity accomplished by individuals or groups after fulfilling a task.After a certain period of time, measurements of employees’ job performance could serve as criterion for promotions, wage adjustments, rewards, punishments and evaluations. Cascio (2006) suggested that managers must specifically define performance to allow the teams or employees to recognize the organizational expectations in order to fulfill the organizational goals. In other words, managers must set concrete goals, trace the fulfillment degree and evaluate the teams’ or employees’ performance.Van Scotter and Motowidlo (1996) suggested that employees with a high degree of job enthusiasm will demonstrate extra effort and devotion, and will actively seek out solutions to problems at work in order to enhance their job performance. Robbins (1998) divided the measurement of job performance into job result, job behavior and personal traits. Lee et al. (1999) divided job performance into efficiency, efficacy and quality. Efficiency refers to the employees’ output rate and is the ability to accomplish tasks before deadline.Efficacy refers to the employees’ goal accomplishment rate and proposals. Quality refers to the employees’ error rate and complaint rate, supervisor satisfaction, customer satisfaction and colleague satisfaction. This study suggested that in the application of this construct to measure hospitality industry employees’ job performance, efficiency should refer to the employees’ speed in customer service, efficacy should mean the accomplishment of tasks assigned by customers, and quality should mean the employees’ performance in customer service.As to measurement, Shore and Thornton (1986) indicated that self-evaluation allows individuals to participate in performance evaluation and serves as a criterion. Based on the above, according to the views of Lee et al. (1999), this study divided job performance into efficiency, efficacy and quality, and measured hospitality industry employees’ job performance using employee self-evaluation. Smith et al. (1969) proposed the Job Description Index (JDI) to measure job satisfaction, with the constructs including wage, promotion, job, supervisors and colleagues.Black and Gregersen (1997) found a positive correlation between job satisfaction and job performance. Organ (1990) suggested that when employees are satisfied with their work, they are willing to sacrifice themselves and devote to their organization. Organizational commitment From the perspective of attitude, Porter et al. (1974) indicated that o rganizational commitment is a person’s active and positive intention to identify with and internalize organizational goals and value.According to Reyes and Pounder (1990), organizational commitment is the strong belief and intention to identify with organizational value, devote to and stay with the organization. Mathews and Shepherd (2002) suggested that organizational commitment refers to workers’ attitude, behavior and connection between individuals and the organization. Guest (1995) indicated that organizational commitment is at the core of human resource management. It transforms traditional manpower management into the core of human resources.Organizational members’ attitude or intentions particularly indicate the importance of employees’ organizational commitment. Dee et al. (2006) suggested that organizational commitment is a person’s intention to devote to and be loyal to the organization. Lambert et al. (2006) suggested that organizational commitment is the structural phenomenon of trading between individuals and organizations. It increases with time, but it does not lead to a transferable investment outcome. Thus, in theoretical study and practical use, scholars have valued organizational commitment in human resource management.In recent years, many scholars have probed into organizational commitment from the view of Porter et al. (1974). Thus, this study also followed the above view and divided organizational commitment into value commitment, effort commitment and retention commitment. This study further treated these three constructs as criteria to measure hospitality industry employees' organizational commitment. Definitions of these constructs are thus shown: (1) Value commitment: a strong belief and identification with organizational goals and values. 2) Effort commitment: the intention to devote more to the organization. (3) Retention commitment: a strong intention to continue being part of the organization. I nternal marketing Internal Marketing (IM) is the process of handling staff as internal customers and projects as internal products that satisfy the needs and desires of the customers and adhere to the company’s goals (Berry and Parasuraman, 1991). Rafiq and Ahmed (1993) suggest that internal marketing involves â€Å"a planned effort to overcome organizational resistance to change and to align, motivate Tsai et al. 4121 nd integrate employees towards the effective implementation of corporate and functional strategies†. Joseph (1996) suggested that internal marketing is can be applied to marketing and human resource management, combining theoretical techniques and principles in order to encourage, recruit and manage all employees in the organization and constantly improve external customer service and mutual services. In addition, Ahmed et al. (2003) defined internal marketing as the employees’ evaluation of the reward system, internal communication, training and development of the company.Internal marketing empirical research in the service sector has proven that internal marketing has influenced on internal customers (that is, employees) satisfactions. Berry and Parasuraman (1991) suggested that the advantages of internal marketing implementation in organizations are as follows: (1) To acquire and keep excellent talent; (2) to provide a common vision so that employees have job purpose and meaning; (3) to give employees the ability and knowledge to accomplish the work; (4) to encourage employees to share the results of teamwork; (5) to create job designs be based on the findings of marketing studies.The aforementioned views reveal that corporate implementation of internal marketing allows employees to enhance service quality, which increases the production and profits of the companies. The implementation of internal marketing in the organizations results in an internal service culture, raises service consciousness and increases profits (Par asuraman et al. , 1985). Based on the views of these scholars, internal marketing is critical for organizations and influences external marketing to further enhance customer satisfaction.According to the these definitions and based on the views of Rafiq and Ahmed (1993) and Ahmed et al. (2003), this study treated employee evaluations of reward systems, internal communication, and training and development of companies as criterion for measuring internal marketing of the hospitality industry. Leadership Leadership refers the process of influencing the team to accomplish the goals (Robbins and Coulter, 2005). Leaders are key success factors of an organization (Bass, 1985; Daft, 2002).Skillful leaders recognize and use the interpersonal relationships of the team and strengthen the members’ loyalty and morale. Effective leaders must learn skills such as patiently sharing information, trusting others and recognizing the timing of interventions (Steckler and Fondas, 1995). In recent years, numerous scholars have tried to discuss leadership from new perspectives. New studies of leadership theory have particularly stressed the influences of demands between leaders and subordinates, the interaction of personality traits and situational factors on leadership (Bargal and Schmid, 1989).Corporate leaders must select a proper leadership according to their subordinates’ different demands for supervision, in order to enhance employee satisfaction and fulfill expected goals. Bass and Avolio (1997) divided leadership into transformational leadership and transactional leadership. In transformational leadership, subordinates trust, respect and are loyal to their leaders. Leaders can develop their subordinates’ potential and enhance their confidence by changing their values and beliefs in order to increase their organizational commitment, intention and motivation to create exceptional outcomes.Transformational leadership can be divided into ideal traits, ideal behavior, the encouragement of inspiration, and the stimulation of wisdom and individual care. In addition, transactional leadership means leaders and members remain in the process of negotiation and mutual benefit instead of a persistent one-purpose relationship. Social exchange theory is treated as the theoretical base. When subordinates act according to their leaders’ expectations, they will have returns with a specific value. Transactional leadership can be divided into contingent rewards, and active and passive exceptional management.Most quantitative studies on leadership have created questionnaires using the MLQ scale designed by Bass and Avolio (1997). The MLQ scale includes two constructs (transformational leadership and transactional leadership). This study also designed a leadership questionnaire for the hospitality industry according to the MLQ scale. Empowerment Empowerment signals a transition away from traditional development that confined people’s role to that of passive recipients, effectively rendering them dependent on handouts in the form of foreign aid (O’Gorman, 1995).Bowen and Lawler III (1992) define empowerment as sharing with frontline employees four organizational ingredients: (1) Information about the organization's performance; (2) rewards based on the organization's performance; (3) knowledge about contributing to organizational performance; (4) power to make decisions that influence organizational direction and performance. Murat and Thomas (2003) suggested that empowerment does not simply refer to telling employees that they are empowered, but aims to allow the employees to recognize what power has been authorized.Boudrias et al. (2004) suggested that in managerial circles, empowerment application includes two types: (1) Empowering the responsibility of decision-making to subordinates while emphasizing rich work environments 4122 Afr. J. Bus. Manage. and diverse authority, information, resources and support, and providing the opportunity to learn in order to improve performance; (2) psychological empowerment, which refers to employees’ experiences of empowerment that are inferred as a mediating variable of empowerment and expected results.According to Sherman (1996), empowerment acknowledges that employees have the power to change in order to encourage employees to increase their competency. Kanter (1993) suggested that empowerment can keep employees from feeling helpless. Organizations could thus reduce negative effects such as low morale. The most significant effect of empowerment is to enhance employees’ abilities and self-efficacy (Conger and Kanungo, 1988).Bowen and Lawler III (1992) suggested the advantages of empowerment for organizations below: (1) To rapidly respond to customer demands and questions; (2) a high degree of employees’ job satisfaction; (3) positive interactions with consumers; (4) employees with creative thoughts; (5) the creation of loyal cu stomers. About the definition of psychological empowerment, Spreitzer (1995) defines this concept as the psychological state that employees must experience for managerial empowerment interventions to be successful.Spreitzer's (1995) measure of empowerment was used to define psychological empowerment and comprises four components: Self-determination, competence, impact, and meaning. (1) Self-determination reflects autonomy in the choices and decisions an individual can make regarding work allocations. (2) Competence refers to self-efficacy specific to work or the task—the confidence that one can perform well within a particular work domain. (3) Impact is the degree to which an individual can influence strategic, informational, or administrative decisions made at the organizational level. 4) Meaning involves the fit between a person’s values and beliefs and work role requirements. Job stress Blau (1981) defined stress as the incompatibility between a person’s comp etency and environment. Job stress extends upon the general definition of stress and is a kind of conceptual process that implies a person’s cognition and reaction to danger or threats (Fleming et al. , 1984). Pearson and Moomaw (2005) suggested that job stress is caused by work situations and people will have unpleasant feelings such as anger, tension, frustration, worry, depression and anxiety. Cooper et al. 1988) attributed job stress to factors intrinsic to the job, management's role, relationships with others, career and achievement, organizational structure, home and work. The sources of stress influence job performance. When an employee can no longer handle the stress, he will fail in his work (Jamal, 1990). Blau (1994) suggests that stress source can divided into external stressors and internal stressors. In addition, stress in the workplace frequently hits you with a double whammy of two-way pressures that come from a combination of both internal and external stresso rs (Stress management tips, 2010).Matteson and Iancevich (1982) suggested that proper stress results in sense of challenge or satisfaction for people. Without such stress, a person will lack motivation and originality. In past research on the influence of stress on job performance, the Yerkes-Dodson principle indicated a reverse U relationship between job stress and job performance (Yerkes and Dodson, 1908). In other words, an increase in work stress will enhance job performance. However, after work stress reaches a certain degree, the increase will reduce job performance. An Empirical study by Huber (1981) also reached a similar finding.However, excessive job stress will increase employee turnover rate (Parasuraman and Alutto, 1984) and further enhance the personnel and training costs of firms. Based on the view of Blau (1994) and characteristics of the hospitality industry, this study divided employees’ job stress in the hospitality industry into external pressure and inter nal stress thus: (1) Organizational external stress: an excessive workload, business stress and load. (2) Organizational internal stress: a lack of participation in job decision-making, without supervisory support, health advantages after changing jobs, anxiety, tension, etc.METHODOLOGY Construction of theoretical model Testa (2001) suggested that job satisfaction is the antecedent variable of organizational commitment and there is positive correlation. The research of Slattery and Selvarajan (2005) indicated that job satisfaction positively influences organizational commitment. In addition, Babin and Boles (1998) treated hospitality service personnel as subjects, and found a positive correlation between job satisfaction and job performance. In other service industries, it has been proved that there is a positive relationship between employees’ job satisfaction and job performance (Chen and Silverthorne, 2005).In addition, Mowday et al. (1982) pointed out that organizational commitment positively influences employees’ job performance. Powell (2000) also validated that organizational commitment positively influences employees’ job performance. Based on the above, the hypotheses are proposed as follows: H1: Job satisfaction positively influences organizational commitment. H2: Job satisfaction positively influences job performance. H3: Organizational commitment positively influences job performance. Regarding the exogenous variables of job satisfaction, Tsai et al. 4123 rganizational commitment and job performance, the service profit chain proposed by Heskett et al. (1994) argued that management’s internal marketing activities produce job satisfaction and commitment to the organization. Tansuhaj et al. (1988), Heskett et al. (1994) and Rafiq and Ahmed (2000) indicated that internal marketing positively influences employees’ job satisfaction, and internal marketing further results in better employees’ customer-oriented beh avior (Arnett et al. , 2002). In addition, corporate implementation of internal marketing positively influences employees’ organizational commitment (Tansuhaj et al. 1991; Heskett et al. , 1994; Chang and Chang, 2007). Based on the above, the hypotheses are proposed as follows: H4: Internal marketing positively influences job satisfaction. H5: Internal marketing positively influences organizational commitment. Besides internal marketing, Morris and Sherman (1981) suggested that leadership can integrate team relationships at work in order to enhance organizational commitment. Leaders’ leadership and support positively influences the employees’ organizational commitment (Billingsley and Cross, 1992; Burton et al. , 2002).The research of Bass (1985) and Hughes and Avey (2009) showed that transformational leadership significantly and positively influences job satisfaction and employee performance. The study of Dubinsky (1994) indicated that leadership (transactional leadership and transformational leadership) positively influences employees’ job satisfaction. The research of Chen and Silverthorne (2005) found a positive correlation between the leaders’ leadership score and employees’ job satisfaction. Based on the above, the hypotheses are proposed as follows: H6: Leadership positively influences organizational commitment.H7: leadership positively influences job satisfaction. H8: leadership positively influences job performance. In addition to internal marketing and leadership, Bowen and Lawler III (1992) suggested that empowerment can enhance employees’ job satisfaction. According to Blanchard et al. (1996), the empowered teams can increase job satisfaction and employees’ identification with their jobs. Based on the research of Fulford and Enz (1995), and Caykoylu et al. (2007), service industry employees’ cognition of empowerment positively influences job satisfaction.Wilson and Laschinger (1994), Mc Dermott et al. (1996), Avolio et al. (2004) and Chen et al. (2008) found that there is a positive correlation between empowerment and employees’ organizational commitment. Lee et al. (2006) studied hotel employees and found that empowerment has a significant effect on organizational commitment. Based on the above, this study developed the following two hypotheses: H9: Empowerment positively influences job satisfaction. H10: Empowerment positively influences organizational commitment. Finally, the studies of Jamal (1990), Borg and Riding (1993), Chiu et al. 2005) and Chen and Silverthorne (2005) pointed out that there is a significant and negative correlation between employees’ job stress and job satisfaction. In addition, Jex (1998) suggested that a reduction of employees’ job stress will increase their job performance. Mughal et al. (1996) argued that anxiety caused by job stress is the main factor of job performance. However, according to the Yerkes-Dodson pri nciple, there is a reverse U nonlinear relationship between job stress and job performance (Yerkes and Dodson, 1908; Huber, 1981).In addition, there can be a positive or negative relationship between job stress and job performance. Williams and Cooper (2002) and Ouyang (2009) also suggested that proper job stress can enhance employees’ job performance. However, according to the view of Blau (1994), job stress can be divided into external and internal job stress. Therefore, according to the above theory, this study divided job stress into internal and external job stress and constructed the following two hypotheses: H11: Job stress negatively influences job satisfaction.H11-1: External job stress negatively influences job satisfaction. H11-2: Internal job stress negatively influences job satisfaction. H12: Job stress significantly influences job performance. H12-1: External job stress significantly influences job performance. H12-2: Internal job stress significantly influences job performance. From H1 to H12, this study constructed an integrated model of job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance, as shown in Figure 1. Data collection Taipei City is the largest international city in Taiwan, and it has numerous international chain hotels.This study treated employees of well-known hotels and hospitality companies in Taipei City as its subjects. From February 1 to April 15, 2010, the researcher targeted 13 well-known hospitality companies (including Grand Hyatt, The Westin Taipei, Howard Hotel, Grand Formosa Regent, Royal Hotel, K-Hotel, The Grand Hotel, Caesar Park Hotel, Landis Hotel, Ambassador Hotel, La Marche, Wang Steak and Tasty) and conducted a survey on their employees using stratified sampling. There were 50 questionnaires distributed to each hotel or restaurant.A total of 650 questionnaires were distributed with 604 valid returns; the valid return rate was 92. 92%. Measurement The questionnaire content included job performanc e, job satisfaction, leadership (transformational and transactional), internal marketing, organizational commitment, empowerment and job stress (external and internal stress). The operational definitions of the construct items are shown in Table 1. This study conducted the survey using a closed questionnaire, and the participants were anonymous.A five-point Likert scale from â€Å"strongly disagree† to â€Å"strongly agree† was used. According to result of 50 pretest questionnaires, Cronbach’s of the constructs were above 0. 7, indicating a high degree of consistency in the constructs of the questionnaire. Statistical methods The study first applied SPSS version 12. 0 to process the descriptive statistic analysis, reliability analysis and related analysis on the effective questionnaires, and understand the sample structure and the internal consistency and relation between various variables.Second, this study assessed the properties of measurement scales for conv ergent validity and discriminant validity, and constructed composite reliability by Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) using maximum likelihood to estimate parameters. Finally, it applied Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to verify the path relationship of the research model, and applied LISREL 8. 70 software as the SEM analysis tool. RESULTS Profile of the respondents This study targeted hospitality industry employees in Taipei 4124 Afr. J. Bus. Manage.External job stress Internal job stress Empowerment Job satisfaction Job performance Internal marketing Organizational commitment Leadership Figure 1. Research framework. Taipei, Taiwan as subjects and successfully collected 604 valid questionnaires. Subsequently, the study applied the frequency distribution table to show the sample characteristics of this study. The sample structure attribute distribution is shown in Table 2. As shown in Table 2, there are more female employees (53. 6%) and most of the subjects are 21 to 30 years o ld (49. %), followed by below 20 years old (42. 1%). Most of the subjects have a college degree or above (81. 0%), and most have worked for 1 to 5 years (52. 5%). In addition, most of the subjects are part-time employees (70. 2%). The structure of the samples is similar to the structure of the human resources of the hospitality industry in Taiwan as investigated by the Directorate General of Budget, Accounting and Statistics, Executive Yuan (2009). In the hospitality industry, most employees have worked for 1 to 5 ears, are young, and have a senior high school, vocational school or college educational level. Descriptive statistics, reliability and validity analysis Analysis of descriptive statistics According to Table 3, the employees’ perceived internal marketing degree was only slightly higher than ordinary (median = 3). As to the leadership, the transformational leadership degree was higher and the transactional leadership degree was lower. The employees’ perceived competency empowerment was higher and their decisionmaking empowerment was lower.The employees’ external job stress was higher and internal job stress was lower. The employees’ job satisfaction with the perceived relationship with colleagues was higher, and their satisfaction with wages, welfare, promotions and growth was significantly lower. As to organizational commitment, the effort commitment was higher whereas retention commitment was lower. As to job performance, hospitality industry employees’ job performance with their perceived efficiency and efficacy was higher but their job quality was lower.Reliability and validity analyses In accordance with accepted practice (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988; Fornell and Larcker, 1981), this study assessed the properties of measurement scales for convergent validity and discriminant validity, and construct Composite Reliability (CR) (that is, construct reliability). Table 3 lists the measurement items of the construct sc ales, standardized coefficient loadings of the confirmatory factor analysis results, construct CR and AVE (Average Variance Extracted) for each multi-item construct in our research model.The measurement model of this study provided a good overall fit with the 2 data (GFI and AGFI 0. 85, CFI, NFI and NNFI;0. 9, ? / d. f ;3, RMR and RMSEA 0. 08). Composite reliability for all constructs in our research model were more than 0. 7, respectively. In general, the measurement scales used in this study were found to be reliable. The AVE for all constructs were more than 0. 5, respectively, all Tsai et al. 4125 Table 1. Operational definitions. Constructs Internal marketing Definitions Employees’ evaluation on reward system, internal communication, training and development.Leadership is divided into transformational and transactional leadership and are defined thus: (1)Transformational leadership: In order to meet employees’ demands, leaders care and encourage employees, includi ng ideal traits, ideal behavior, encouragement of inspiration, stimulation of wisdom and individual care. (2) Transactional leadership: the relationship between leaders and subordinates is based on exchange, mutual benefit, fairness degree of contribution and return, including contingent rewards and active and passive exceptional management. Managers empower employees to make daily decisions.It is the degree of employees’ perceived empowerment, including meaning, ability, self-decision-making and influence. Incompatibility between individual ability and environment. It includes external job stress (such as workload, performance stress and job objective loads) and internal job stress (including lack of participation in job decision-making, without supervisory support, health advantages after changing jobs and tension). A person identifies with the organizational goals and values and internalizes them to show positive and active intention, including effort commitment, value com mitment and retention commitment.Degrees (including efficiency, efficacy and quality) of employees’ accomplishment of organizational goals. Source Rafiq and Ahmed (1993) Ahmed et al. (2003) Leadership Bass and Avolio (1997) Empowerment Spreitzer (1995) Job stress Blau (1994) Organizational commitment Porter et al. (1974), Brooke et al. (1988) Borman and Motowidlo (1993); Shore and Thornton III (1986) Lee et al. (1999) Job performance exceeding the benchmark of 0. 50 for convergent validity (Fornell and Larcker, 1981).Discriminant validity is established if the AVE is larger than the Squared Multiple Correlation (SMC) coefficients between constructs (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). Our results demonstrate that the AVE values for all constructs were more than SMC coefficients in Table 4. This result indicates sufficient discriminant validity for all constructs in this study. Analysis and hypothesis testing Path analysis of research model According to the reliability and validity an alysis above, the model of this study involved convergent validity, discriminant validity and internal consistency.Thus, this study validated the path relationships of the model using SEM. First of all, according to model fit analysis, the fit measures were acceptable (GFI, AGFI ; 0. 85, CFI, NFI, IFI 2 ; 0. 9, RMR and RMSEA; 0. 08 and ? /d. f ; 3). In 2 the research model, the R of job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance were respectively 0. 65, 0. 75 and 0. 72, which were all above 60%. Thus, the overall research model revealed the relative explained power. Regarding the causal relationships among latent variables of 4126 Afr. J. Bus. Manage. Table 2.Profile of the respondents (n=604). Background variable Gender Male Female Age Below 20 years old 21 – 30 years old 31 years old Educational level Below senior high and vocational school Above college Frequency Percentage Background variable Seniority 280 46. 4 Below 1 year 324 53. 6 1 – 5 years A bove 6 years 254 300 50 42. 1 49. 7 8. 3 Position High and medium level supervisors Basic level supervisors Basic level employees (full-time) Part-time employees Frequency Percentage 255 317 62 37. 3 52. 5 10. 2 26 42 112 424 4. 3 7. 0 18. 5 70. 2 115 489 19. 0 81. 0 Table 3.Measurement scales and properties. Constructs Internal marketing Variables Reward system Internal communication Training and development Transformational leadership Transactional Leadership Meaning Ability Self decision-making Influence Job loading Performance stress Job objectives Lack of participation in decision-making Without supervisors’ support Influence of job on health Tension Salary and welfare Promotion and growth Job content Relationship with colleagues Relationship with supervisors Value commitment Effort commitment Retention commitment Efficiency Efficacy Quality Mean (S.D. ) 3. 38 (0. 81) 3. 44 (0. 77) 3. 43 (0. 77) 3. 51 (0. 77) 3. 34 (0. 84) 3. 38 (0. 89) 3. 53 (0. 89) 3. 36 (0. 90) 3. 13 (0. 89) 3. 22 (0. 85) 3. 17 (0. 88) 3. 12 (0. 82) 3. 01(0. 90) 2. 79 (0. 95) 3. 29 (0. 97) 2. 93 (0. 99) 3. 04 (0. 93) 3. 16 (0. 73) 3. 39 (0. 83) 3. 56 (0. 85) 3. 32 (0. 90) 3. 39 (0. 87) 3. 79 (0. 87) 3. 27 (0. 94) 3. 54 (0. 84) 3. 60 (0. 82) 3. 41 (0. 80) Loading 0. 79 0. 85 0. 78 0. 87 0. 73 0. 81 0. 75 0. 64 0. 60 0. 81 0. 83 0. 81 0. 65 0. 76 0. 67 0. 79 0. 60 0. 81 0. 71 0. 66 0. 75 0. 75 0. 71 0. 74 0. 82 0. 84 0. 70 CR 0. 85 AVE 0. 65 Leadership 0. 78 . 64 Empowerment 0. 79 0. 50 External job stress 0. 86 0. 67 Internal job stress 0. 81 0. 52 Job satisfaction 0. 83 0. 50 Organizational commitment 0. 78 0. 54 Job performance 0. 83 0. 62 X2/d. f 2. 78, GFI = 0. 92, AGFI = 0. 85, CFI = 0. 96, NFI = 0. 95, NNFI = 0. 95, RMR = 0. 074, RMSEA = 0. 08. Tsai et al. 4127 latent variables of the research model, ? is the standardized path coefficient representing the direct effect among latent variables. A higher value indicates a stronger path relationship. According to the result of path analysis (Figure 2), organizational commitment (? 0. 70, P;0. 001) and external job stress (? =0. 10, P;0. 05) were shown to positively and significantly influence hospitality industry employees’ job performance. Organizational commitment was the most influential on job performance. Influences of job satisfaction (? =0. 09, P;0. 05), internal job stress (? =-0. 02, P;0. 05) and leadership (? =-0. 03, P;0. 05) on job performance were insignificant. Therefore, the higher the organizational commitment and external job stress, the better the employees’ job performance.On the contrary, job satisfaction did not directly influence hospitality industry employees’ job performance, and would only influence the employees’ job performance by organizational commitment. Therefore, in order to enhance hospitality industry employees’ job performance, it is critical to enhance employees’ organizational commitment. In addition, regarding the variables of organizational commitment, empowerment (? = 0. 5, P;0. 001), leadership (? = 0. 36, P;0. 001) and job satisfaction (? =0. 24, P;0. 01) were shown to positively and significantly influence organizational commitment.However, the influence of internal marketing (? = 0. 07, P;0. 05) on organizational commitment was insignificant. It indicates that the higher the empowerment, leadership evaluation and job satisfaction, the higher hospitality industry employees’ loyalty to the organization. Finally, regarding the variables of job satisfaction, empowerment (? = 0. 17, P;0. 01), internal marketing (? = 0. 45, P;0. 001) and leadership (? = 0. 21, P;0. 01) were shown to significantly and positively influence hospitality industry employees’ job satisfaction. Internal marketing is the key factor which enhances employees’ job satisfaction.Internal job stress (? = -0. 19, P;0. 001) significantly and negatively influenced job satisfaction. However, external job stress (? =0. 06, P;0. 05) did not significantly influence job satisfaction. It indicates that the higher the empowerment, the higher internal marketing. As the leadership is more significant and the internal job stress is less, the employees’ job satisfaction is higher. Hypothesis testing According to the above analytical result, this study reorganized path coefficient and the results of hypothesis testing, as shown in Table 5.Analysis of overall effects This study further analyzed the total influences of exogenous variables on dependent variables, and the result is shown in Table 6. It indicates that the most influential exogenous variables of job satisfaction are in this order: internal marketing, leadership and internal job stress. Internal job stress revealed a negative effect. The key exogenous variables of organizational commitment were the same as those for job performance: the first were empowerment, followed by leadership and internal marketing.Analysis of the difference of sampl es with different characteristics This study probed into the difference of latent variables of hospitality industry employees with different attributes (example, gender, age, educational level, seniority and position) using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) as the criterion for improving human resource strategies in the hospitality industry. According to the analytical result shown in Table 7, as to gender, the means of different constructs did not reveal significant differences (p;0. 05).As to age, older employees tended to perceive internal marketing, leadership, empowerment, organizational commitment and job performance higher. Regarding educational level, employees with a higher educational level had significantly more internal job stress than those with a lower educational level. As to perceive internal marketing, leadership, empowerment, job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance, employees with a lower educational level revealed a significantly higher degree than those with a higher educational level. As to seniority, only perceived empowerment revealed a significant difference.Employees with higher seniority tended to perceive empowerment higher. Regarding positions, part-time employees’ external job stress, empowerment, internal marketing, leadership, organizational commitment and job performance were significantly lower than other fulltime employees and supervisors. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The influence of service industry employees’ performance on customer satisfaction and corporate operational performance has been broadly discussed and validated in past research (Tansuhaj et al. , 1988; Bitner, 1995; Chowdhary, 2003).However, in comparison to employees in other service industries, those in the hospitality industry have long working hours and low incomes. Thus, the employees have low employment intentions and a high turnover rate (Kao and Lin, 2004). Therefore, how to effectively enhance employee satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance is a critical issue in hospitality industry management. This study combined exogenous variables, such as internal marketing, leadership, empowerment and job stress, and proposed an integrated model of hospitality industry employees’ job satisfaction, organizational commitment 128 Afr. J. Bus. Manage. Table 4. Discriminant validity of each construct. Internal marketing Internal marketing Leadership Empowerment External stress Internal stress Job satisfaction Organizational commitment Job performance a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h Leadership 0. 64 0. 15 0. 00 0. 04 0. 30 0. 33 0. 18 b Empowerment External stress Internal stress Job satisfaction Organizational commitment Job performance 0. 65 0. 42 0. 24 0. 01 0. 03 0. 39 0. 31 0. 18 a 0. 50 0. 01 0. 01 0. 21 0. 28 0. 30 c 0. 67 0. 26 0. 00 0. 01 0. 01 d 0. 52 0. 08 0. 02 0. 02 e 0. 50 0. 34 0. 4 f 0. 54 0. 30 g 0. 62 h represent the AVE of each construct. Other numbers represent the SMC coefficie nts between constructs. External job stress Internal job stress 0. 06 -0. 19*** Empowerment 0. 17** 0. 45*** Job satisfaction 0. 21** 0. 24** -0. 02 0. 09 0. 70*** 0. 1* Job performance -0. 03 Internal marketing 0. 07 0. 50*** Organizational commitment 0. 36*** Leadership Figure 2. Path analysis of the research model. *p;0. 05; **p;0. 01; ***p;0. 001. Tsai et al. 4129 Table 5. Path coefficients of SEM analysis and results of hypothesis testing.Hypothesis and path H1 Job satisfaction organizational commitment H2 Job satisfaction job performance H3 Organizational commitment job performance H4 Internal marketing job satisfaction H5 Internal marketing organizational commitment H6 Leadership organizational commitment H7 Leadership job satisfaction H8 Leadership job performance H9 Empowerment job satisfaction H10 Empowerment organizational commitment H11-1 External job stress job satisfaction H11-2 Internal job stress job satisfaction H12-1 External job stress job performance H12-2 Intern al job stress job performance * p;0. 5; ** p;0. 01; *** p;0. 001. Path coefficients 0. 24** 0. 09 0. 70*** 0. 45*** 0. 07 0. 36*** 0. 21** -0. 03 0. 17** 0. 50*** 0. 06 -0. 19*** 0. 1* -0. 02 Hypothesis testing Support Not support Support Support Not support Support Support Not support Support Support Not support Support Support Not support Table 6. Overall effects of exogenous variables.Path Empowerment job satisfaction Internal marketing job satisfaction Leadership job satisfaction External job stress job satisfaction Internal job stress job satisfaction Empowerment organizational commitment Internal marketing organizational commitment Leadership organizational commitment External job stress organizational commitment Internal job stress organizational commitment Empowerment job performance Internal marketing job performance Leadership job performance External job stress job performance Internal job stress job performance Overall effects 0. 7 0. 45 0. 21 0. 06 -0. 19 0. 541 0. 178 0. 410 0. 014 -0. 046 0. 394 0. 165 0. 306 0. 115 -0. 069 4130 Afr. J. Bus. Manage. Table 7. Analysis of the mean difference of employees with different attributes. Organizational commitment Empowerment Internal stress Attributes Gender Male Female F value Below 20 years old 21-30 years old Above 31 years old F value Below senior high school Above college F value Below 1 year 1 – 5 years Above 6 years F value High and medium level supervisors Basic level supervisors Basic level employees Part-time employees F valueCategory 3. 430 3. 407 0. 168 3. 471 3. 346 3. 578 3. 817* 3. 560 3. 385 6. 107* 3. 496 3. 369 3. 383 2. 350 3. 386 3. 544 3. 567 3. 368 3. 024* 3. 416 3. 428 0. 044 3. 474 3. 342 3. 646 4. 868** 3. 597 3. 381 8. 167** 3. 488 3. 366 3. 469 1. 987 3. 467 3. 585 3. 558 3. 368 2. 814* 3. 405 3. 303 3. 272 3. 336 3. 318 3. 615 4. 089* 3. 489 3. 317 5. 802* 3. 266 3. 356 3. 625 6. 699*** 3. 596 3. 637 3. 493 3. 268 7. 289*** 3. 214 3. 125 2. 156 3. 182 3. 118 3. 373 2. 6 03 3. 229 3. 151 0. 997 3. 130 3. 164 3. 306 1. 343 3. 423 3. 365 3. 92 3. 097 4. 299** 3. 029 2. 989 0. 456 3. 018 2. 994 3. 035 0. 115 2. 880 3. 037 4. 513* 2. 969 3. 023 3. 069 0. 627 2. 981 3. 065 2. 984 3. 009 0. 144 3. 279 3. 309 0. 328 3. 341 3. 236 3. 412 2. 732 3. 401 3. 270 3. 895* 3. 338 3. 275 3. 235 0. 992 3. 250 3. 338 3. 388 3. 268 1. 137 3. 461 3. 504 0. 503 3. 495 3. 422 3. 800 5. 571** 3. 652 3. 444 7. 223** 3. 499 3. 440 3. 656 2. 244 3. 744 3. 841 3. 708 3. 373 11. 177*** 3. 519 3. 510 0. 023 3. 591 3. 412 3. 740 7. 354*** 3. 661 3. 480 6. 196* 3. 489 3. 506 3. 651 1. 330 3. 615 3. 46 3. 598 3. 463 3. 000* Age Educational level Seniority Position * p;0. 05; ** p;0. 01; *** p;0. 001 Job performance Job satisfaction Leadership Internal marketing External stress Tsai et al. 4131 organizational commitment and job performance. In the 2 model, the explained power (R ) of the exogenous variables on endogenous variables such as job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance was above 50%, indicating that the relation model constructed by this study revealed positive prediction validity.In the relationship between employees’ job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance, this study found that hospitality industry employees’ job satisfaction directly and positively influences organizational commitment. The results meet the statement that service industry employees’ satisfaction can enhance employees’ organizational commitment (Testa, 2001; Slattery and Selvarajan, 2005; Yiing and Ahmad, 2009). However, job satisfaction does not directly influence hospitality industry employees’ job performance. This finding is different from the research results of other scholars (Babin and Boles, 1998; Bernhardt et al. 2000; Van Scotter, 2000; Koys, 2003; Chen and Silverthorne, 2005). In addition, organizational commitment directly and positively influences hospitality industry employees’ j ob performance. The result demonstrates that organizational commitment can enhance employees’ job performance (Huber, 1981; Mowday et al. , 1982; Gregson, 1992; Powell, 2000). Based on the above findings, although hospitality industry employees’ job satisfaction does not directly influence job performance, it enhances their job performance through organizational commitment. Therefore, there is n indirect relationship between job satisfaction and hospitality industry employees’ job performance. Organizational commitment is the moderator. â€Å"In practice, hospitality industry employees have low income,† cohesion and loyalty upon hospitality industry employees’ job satisfaction will further enhance job performance. Regarding the factors of job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance, this study found that hospitality industry employees’ positive perception of internal marketing, leadership and empowerment strengthen their job satisfaction.Internal marketing is the major factor of hospitality industry employees’ job satisfaction, followed by leadership, internal job stress and empowerment. The findings meet other scholars’ suggestions that leadership (Yammarino and Dubinsky, 1994), job stress (Jamal, 1900; Jex, 1998; Chen and Silverthorne, 2005), empowerment (Bowen and Lawler III, 1992; Fulford and Enz, 1995; Dickson and Lorenz, 2009) and internal marketing (Rafiq and Ahmed, 2000; Hwang and Chi, 2005; Gounaris, 2008) significantly affect service industry employees’ satisfaction. In practice, employee training can give them greater problem-solving abilities and encourage employees and care about employees can give them pleasant working environment. The internal marketing will enhance cohesion and loyalty of employees and will further enhance job performance of employees. † Based on the above, in order to enhance employees’ job satisfaction, the hospitality industry sho uld first make efforts on internal marketing and satisfy employees’ demands and desires by reinforcing internal communication, implementing reward systems, increasing educational training and reducing employees’ errors at work.Supervisors’ leadership is also a key factor which enhances hospitality industry employees’ job satisfaction. Therefore, the employees’ perceived supervisors’ leadership is an important issue for the hospitality industry to enhance job satisfaction. In hospitality service, there are usually a number of unexpected problems for customers and employees. Thus, sufficient empowerment is critical. The employees can not only solve problems immediately, but also be encouraged. Regarding employees’ organizational commitment, it is influenced by employees’ job satisfaction.Hospitality industry employees’ positive perception of empowerment and leadership enhance employees’ organizational commitment. Th is finding meets the findings of other service industries (Morris and Sherman, 1981; Burton et al. , 2002; Avolio et al. , 2004; Lee et al. , 2006; Chen et al. , 2008). â€Å"In practice, supervisors should sufficiently empower their employees according to different jobs and profession. Thus, employees would properly demonstrate their competency and be more autonomic at work and more flexible when dealing with emergencies.This will enhance cohesion and loyalty of employees. † However, internal marketing does not significantly influence employees’ organizational commitment. This finding is different from the results of other service industries (Tansuhaj et al. , 1991; Tansuhaj et al. , 1998; Naude et al. , 2003; Chang and Chang, 2007). However, this study also found that empowerment, leadership and internal marketing increase employees’ organizational commitment through job satisfaction, suggesting that internal marketing indirectly influences organizational comm itment.Based on the above, in order to enhance employees’ organizational commitment, sufficient empowerment is the key strategy for the hospitality industry. Through empowerment, hospitality industry employees recognize value and trust from the organization, and their identification with the organization would be enhanced. However, the influence of supervisors’ leadership on organizational commitment is only second to empowerment; thus, employees’ perceived supervisors’ leadership is the critical measure to enhance employees’ organizational commitment.The influence of internal marketing on organizational commitment is lower than empowerment and leadership; however, it relatively increases hospitality industry employees’ organizational commitment. In terms of the influences of job stress on job satisfaction and job performance, this study found that internal stress and external stress reveal different effects. Internal job stress negatively i nfluences hospitality industry employees’ job satisfaction. This result meets the findings related to other service industries. Job stress reduces employees’ job satisfaction (Jamal, 1990; Borg and 4132Afr. J. Bus. Manage. and Riding, 1993; Jex, 1998; Chiu et al. , 2005; Chen and Silverthorne, 2005). For this study, it is possibly because most hospitality industry employees have a heavy workload. When in a stressful work place over a long term, they tend to have internal pressure, such as tension and being without supervisory support. Thus, how to reduce employees’ internal job stress is an important issue for the hospitality industry. In addition, although external job stress will not influence job satisfaction, it is a key factor for enhancing hospitality industry employees’ job performance.The results meet the statement that proper job stress might enhance employees’ job performance (Williams and Cooper, 2002; Ouyang, 2009). Therefore, although the construction of a proper workload and performance objectives will result in some external job pressure for employees, it is relatively effective for enhancing job performance. Regarding the overall effect, empowerment is the most critical factor of hospitality industry employees’ organizational commitment and job performance, followed by leadership and internal marketing.Internal marketing is the most important factor which enhances hospitality industry employees’ job satisfaction, followed by leadership and empowerment. In addition, internal job stress negatively influences employees’ job satisfaction, and external job stress positively affect employees’ job performance. According to the above results, empowerment, leadership, internal marketing, external and internal job stress influence job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance differently.Therefore, it is necessary to consider focusing on the types of employees that can enhan ce (or reduce) the exogenous variables in order to increase hospitality industry employees’ job satisfaction, organizational commitment and job performance. Thus, this study further conducted difference analysis using attributes of the subjects, and found that younger parttime employees with lower seniority and a higher educational level revealed a lower perceived empowerment degree.Younger part-time employees with a higher educational level have a lower degree of perceived leadership, and younger part-time employees with a higher educational level have a lower degree of perceived internal marketing. Thus, in order to enhance hospitality industry employees’ overall degree of perceived empowerment, leadership and internal marketing, managers should first target younger part-time employees with a higher educational level. In addition, employees with a higher educational level perceive relatively more internal job stress, but part-time employees’ xternal job stress is relatively less. The results can serve as references for human resource management and job distribution. MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS According to the research findings, hospitality industry employees’ job satisfaction positively influences organizational commitment. However, many employees are unsatisfied with their wages, welfare, promotion and growth. Thus, it is suggested that the hospitality industry should re-evaluate the fairness of wages and benefits and further enhance promotion and growth systems in the organization in order to strengthen employee satisfaction.In addition, organizational commitment is the most critical factor to enhance job performance. Job satisfaction should enhance job performance only through organizational commitment. It indicates that the enhancement of organizational commitment is an important strategy of human resource management in the hospitality industry. It should particularly allow employees to accept organizational objectives, values an d beliefs, and enhance the employees’ loyalty and devotion.Empowerment (in particular) and leadership are key factors for increasing hospitality industry employees’ organizational commitment. In addition, internal marketing is the most important factor to enhance hospitality industry employees’ job satisfaction, followed by leadership and empowerment. This study suggests that hospitality industry supervisors should sufficiently empower their employees according to different jobs and profession. Thus, employees would properly demonstrate their competency, and be more autonomic at work and more flexible when dealing with emergencies.As to younger part-time employees with lower seniority and a higher educational level, it is suggested to enhance educational training and flexibility, giving them greater problem-solving abilities and sufficient empowerment. In addition, this study suggests supervisors to select transformational leadership or transactional leadership according to the attributes of the employees’ jobs so that employees, particularly younger part-time ones with a higher educational level, will perceive their supervisors’